Cardiologi
ReferensvÀrden

🇾đŸ‡Ș Ekkokardiografi

ReferensvÀrden för aorta, kammare, förmak, klaffar och Doppler-baserad graderingen av valvulÀra vitier.

Innhold (17)

ReferensvÀrdena nedan Àr hÀmtade frÄn American Society of Echocardiography (ASE) och European Association of Cardiovascular Imaging (EACVI) konsensusdokument. AnvÀnd innehÄllsförteckningen för att hoppa direkt till rÀtt avsnitt.

Aorta, normalvÀrden

NormalintervallNormalinterval, justerat
Annulus aortae20-31 mm12-14 mm/m2
Sinus valsalva29-45 mm15-20 mm/m2
Sinotubular junction22-36 mm13-17 mm/m2
Aorta ascendens22-36 mm13-17 mm/m2
Arcus aortae22-36 mm
Aorta descendens20-30 mm

​Justering innebĂ€r att vĂ€rdet justeras för kroppsyta (BSA, Body Surface Area), som anges i kvadratmeter.

Aorta, standardiserat

Standardiserade vÀrden (medelvÀrde ± SD)

AgeAnnulus aortae, WomenAnnulus aortae, MenSinus valsalva, WomenSinus valsalva, Men
<3011.4 ± 1.111.4 ± 1.215.5 ± 1.515.3 ± 1.8
30–3911.7 ± 1.011.4 ± 1.116.5 ± 1.615.7 ± 1.3*
40–4911.7 ± 1.011.5 ± 0.916.8 ± 1.416.6 ± 1.5
50–5912.0 ± 0.911.5 ± 0.917.9 ± 1.616.8 ± 1.7*
60–6911.7 ± 1.112.1 ± 1.017.5 ± 1.717.8 ± 1.6
>7011.6 ± 1.112.0 ± 1.018.2 ± 1.918.1 ± 1.7
All11.7 ± 1.011.6 ± 1.017.0 ± 1.916.6 ± 1.8
AgeSinotubular junction, WomenSinotubular junction, MenAorta ascendens, WomenAorta ascendens, Men
<3013.5 ± 1.412.7 ± 2.315.1 ± 1.614.3 ± 1.6*
30–3914.3 ± 1.513.3 ± 1.316.4 ± 1.814.5 ± 1.4*
40–4914.6 ± 1.214.1 ± 1.5*16.4 ± 1.415.5 ± 1.5*
50–5915.7 ± 1.314.1 ± 1.518.0 ± 1.416.2 ± 1.6*
60–6914.7 ± 1.615.1 ± 1.6*17.6 ± 1.717.3 ± 1.7
>7015.5 ± 2.014.7 ± 1.618.2 ± 3.317.5 ± 1.4
All14.7 ± 1.713.9 ± 1.816.9 ± 2.315.7 ± 1.8
AgeArcus aortae, WomenArcus aortae, Men
<3010.7 ± 1.010.1 ± 1.3*
30–3911.6 ± 1.610.8 ± 1.3*
40–4911.5 ± 1.211.3 ± 1.3
50–5912.7 ± 1.111.3 ± 1.2*
60–6912.5 ± 1.412.0 ± 1.1
>7012.7 ± 1.212.2 ± 1.3
All11.9 ± 1.511.2 ± 1.4

Aortainsufficiens (AI)

Primary parameters

Mild regurgitationModerate regurgitationSevere regurgitation
Vena contracta (cm)< 0,30,3-0,6> 0,6
PHT (pressure half time) – CW doppler> 500200-500< 200
Diastolic flow reversal – PW doppler aorta descendensif present, early diastolicearly diastolicholodiastolic

Quantification of jet

Mild regurgitationModerate regurgitationSevere regurgitation
Jet-width / LVOT-width< 0,250,25-0,64> 0,64
Jet-area / LVOT-area< 0,050,05-0,59> 0,59

Qualitative parameters

Mild regurgitationModerate regurgitationSevere regurgitation
Jet areasmallvariablelarge if central, variable if excentric
Coaptation defectmildmoderatesevere
CW-profile aortic regurgitationweakvariabledense
Size left atriumnormalnormal or enlargedenlarged
Size left ventriclenormalnormal or enlargedenlarged

Additional PISA-parameters

Mild regurgitationModerate regurgitationSevere regurgitation
EROA (cmÂČ)< 0,100,10-0,29> 0,29
Regurgitation volume (ml/beat)< 3030-59> 59
Regurgitation fraction (%)< 3030-49> 49

EROA = (CSA*v)/v(maxMR) {{ Flödeshastighet = CSA*v = 6.28*r2*v(aliasing)

Referenser

  1. Zoghbi, William A.; Enriquez-Sarano, Maurice; Foster, Elyse; Grayburn, Paul A.; Kraft, Carol D.; Levine, Robert A. et al. (2003): Recommendations for evaluation of the severity of native valvular regurgitation with two-dimensional and Doppler echocardiography. In Journal of the American Society of Echocardiography : official publication of the American Society of Echocardiography 16 (7), pp. 777–802. DOI: 10.1016/S0894-7317(03)00335-3.
  2. Zoghbi, William A.; Adams, David; Bonow, Robert O.; Enriquez-Sarano, Maurice; Foster, Elyse; Grayburn, Paul A. et al. (2017): Recommendations for Noninvasive Evaluation of Native Valvular Regurgitation. A Report from the American Society of Echocardiography Developed in Collaboration with the Society for Cardiovascular Magnetic Resonance. In Journal of the American Society of Echocardiography : official publication of the American Society of Echocardiography 30 (4), pp. 303–371. DOI: 10.1016/j.echo.2017.01.007.

Aortastenos (AS)

Disease defining parameters

Mild stenosisModerate stenosisSevere stenosis
Valve area (cmÂČ)> 1,51,0-1,5< 1,0
Normalized valve area (cmÂČ/mÂČ)>0,850,6-0,85< 0,6

Measured parameters

Aortic sclerosisMild stenosisModerate stenosisSevere stenosis
Mean gradient (mmHg)< 2020-40> 40
Peak velocity (m/s)1,8-2,52,6-2,93,0-4,0> 4,0
Peak gradient (mmHg)< 3535-65> 65
Velocity ratio (LVOT / aotric valve)> 0,50,5-0,25< 0,25

Referenser

  1. Baumgartner, Helmut; Hung, Judy; Bermejo, Javier; Chambers, John B.; Evangelista, Arturo; Griffin, Brian P. et al. (2009): Echocardiographic assessment of valve stenosis: EAE/ASE recommendations for clinical practice. In Journal of the American Society of Echocardiography : official publication of the American Society of Echocardiography 22 (1), 1-23; quiz 101-2. DOI: 10.1016/j.echo.2008.11.029.
  2. Baumgartner, Helmut; Hung, Judy; Bermejo, Javier; Chambers, John B.; Evangelista, Arturo; Griffin, Brian P. et al. (2009): Echocardiographic assessment of valve stenosis: EAE/ASE recommendations for clinical practice. In European journal of echocardiography : the journal of the Working Group on Echocardiography of the European Society of Cardiology 10 (1), pp. 1–25. DOI: 10.1093/ejechocard/jen303.
  3. Vahanian, Alec; Alfieri, Ottavio; Andreotti, Felicita; Antunes, Manuel J.; Barón-Esquivias, Gonzalo; Baumgartner, Helmut et al. (2012): Guidelines on the management of valvular heart disease (version 2012). In European heart journal 33 (19), pp. 2451–2496. DOI: 10.1093/eurheartj/ehs109.
  4. Baumgartner, Helmut; Hung, Judy; Bermejo, Javier; Chambers, John B.; Edvardsen, Thor; Goldstein, Steven et al. (2017): Recommendations on the Echocardiographic Assessment of Aortic Valve Stenosis. A Focused Update from the European Association of Cardiovascular Imaging and the American Society of Echocardiography. In Journal of the American Society of Echocardiography : official publication of the American Society of Echocardiography 30 (4), pp. 372–392. DOI: 10.1016/j.echo.2017.02.009.

VÀnster kammare, funktion, systolisk, visuell bedömning

Visuell bedömning av vÀnster kammares segment (systoliskt funktion)

TYP AV VÄGGRÖRELSEDEFINITIONWALL MOTION SCORE
NormalNormal förtjockning (vanligtvis >30% förtjockning frÄn slutdiastole till slutsystole).1
HypokinesiMinskad förtjockning (vanligtvis 10–30% förtjockning frĂ„n slutdiastole till slutsystole)2
AkinesiMarkant reducerad eller ingen förtjockning (<10%)3
DyskinesiParadoxal förtunning och/eller utÄtriktad rörelse under systole4
AneurysmatiskDiastolisk deformering5

​Denna semikvantitativa gradering av vĂ€nster kammares systoliska funktion rekommenderas av American Society for Echocardiography (J Am Soc Echocardiogr 18:1440-1463, 2005).

VĂ€nster kammare, massa och geometri

ReferensvÀrden för vÀnster kammares massa och geometri

KvinnorMĂ€n
ReferensLĂ€tt abnormalModerat abnormalUttalat abnormalReferensLĂ€tt abnormalModerat abnormalUttalat abnormal
LINJÄR METOD
LV mass, g67–162163–186187–210>21188–224225–258259–292>293
LV mass/BSA, g/m243–9596–108109–121> 12249–115116–131132–148> 149
LV mass/height, g/m41–99100–115116–128>12952–126127–144145–162>163
LV mass/height 2,7 , g/m2,718–4445–5152–58>5920–4849–5556–63>64
Relative wall thickness, cm0.22–0.420.43–0.470.48–0.52>0.530.24–0.420.43–0.460.47–0.51>0.52
Septal thickness, cm0.6–0.91.0–1.21.3–1.5> 1.60.6–1.01.1–1.31.4–1.6> 1.7
Posterior wall thickness, cm0.6–0.91.0–1.21.3–1.5> 1.60.6–1.01.1–1.31.4–1.6> 1.7
2D METOD
LV mass, g66–150151–171172–182> 19396–200201–227228–254> 255
LV mass/BSA, g/m244–8889–100101–112> 11350–102103–116117–130> 131

BSA, Body surface area; LV, left ventricular; 2D, 2-dimensional. Fet kursiv stil: rekommenderad och bÀst validerad.

VĂ€nster kammare, storlek

ReferensvÀrden för vÀnster kammares storlek

KvinnorMĂ€n
NormalintervallLĂ€tt abnormalMĂ„ttligt abnormalUttalat abnormalNormalintervallLĂ€tt abnormalMĂ„ttligt abnormalUttalat abnormal
LV DIMENSIONS
LV diastolic diameter3.9–5.35.4–5.75.8–6.1>6.24.2–5.96.0–6.36.4–6.8>6.9
LV diastolic diameter/BSA, cm/m 22.4–3.23.3–3.43.5–3.7>3.82.2–3.13.2–3.43.5–3.6>3.7
LV diastolic diameter/height, cm/m2.5–3.23.3–3.43.5–3.6>3.72.4–3.33.4–3.53.6–3.7>3.8
LV VOLUME
LV diastolic volume, mL56–104105–117118–130>13167–155156–178179–201>201
LV diastolic volume/BSA, mL/m 235–7576–8687–96> 9735–7576–8687–96> 97
LV systolic volume, mL19–4950–5960–69>7022–5859–7071–82>83
LV systolic volume/BSA, mL/m 212–3031–3637–42> 4312–3031–3637–42> 43

BSA, body surface area; LV, left ventricular. Fet kursiv stil: rekommenderad och bÀst validerad.

VĂ€nster kammare, funktion

ReferensvÀrden för vÀnsterkammarfunktion

KvinnorMĂ€n
NormalLĂ€tt abnormalMĂ„ttligt abnormalUttalat abnormalNormalLĂ€tt abnormalMĂ„ttligt abnormalUttalat abnormal
LINJÄR METOD
Endocardial fractional shortening, %27–4522–2617–21<1625–4320–2415–19<14
Midwall fractional shortening, %15–2313–1411–12<1014–2212–1310–11<10
2D METOD
Ejection fraction, %>5545–5430–44<30>5545–5430–44<30

2D, Two-dimensional. Fet kursiv: rekommenderad och bÀst validerad.

Ny klassificering av ejektionsfraktion

NormalMildly abnormalModerately abnormalSeverely abnormal
Ejection fraction (%), biplan, males52-7241-5130-40<30
Ejection fraction (%), biplan, females54-7441-5330-40<30

Referenser

  1. Lang, Roberto M.; Badano, Luigi P.; Mor-Avi, Victor; Afilalo, Jonathan; Armstrong, Anderson; Ernande, Laura et al. (2015): Recommendations for cardiac chamber quantification by echocardiography in adults: an update from the American Society of Echocardiography and the European Association of Cardiovascular Imaging. In European heart journal cardiovascular Imaging 16 (3), pp. 233–270. DOI: 10.1093/ehjci/jev014.
  2. Lang, Roberto M.; Bierig, Michelle; Devereux, Richard B.; Flachskampf, Frank A.; Foster, Elyse; Pellikka, Patricia A. et al. (2005): Recommendations for chamber quantification: a report from the American Society of Echocardiography’s Guidelines and Standards Committee and the Chamber Quantification Writing Group, developed in conjunction with the European Association of Echocardiography, a branch of the European Society of Cardiology. In Journal of the American Society of Echocardiography : official publication of the American Society of Echocardiography 18 (12), pp. 1440–1463. DOI: 10.1016/j.echo.2005.10.005. –>Pubmed-Link

VĂ€nster kammare, funktion, diastolisk

CriteriaNormal ungNormal vuxenAbnormal relaxation (grad 1 dysfunktion)Pseudonormal (grad 2 dysfunktion)Reversibel restriktiv fyllnad (grad 3 dysfunktion)Irreversibel restriktiv fyllnad (grad 4 dysfunktion)
E/A-ratio1–21–2<11–1.5 (reverserar med Valsalva-manöver)>1.51.5–2.0 (reverserar inte med Valsalva-manöver)
Deceleration time (DT), ms<240150–240≄240150–200<150<150
IVRT (ms)70–9070–90>90<90<70<70
S/D-ratio<1≄1≄1<1<1<1
ARdur – Adur (ms)≄30≀0≀0 eller ≄30≄30≄30≄30
AR speed (cm/s)<35<35<35≄35≄35≄35
e’ speed (cm/s)>10>8<8<8<8<8

För att erhĂ„lla ”ARdur–Adur” subtraheras Adur frĂ„n ARdur.AR hastighet Ă€r flödeshastigheten pĂ„ den negativa vĂ„gen som registreras vid lungvensdoppler (AR = atrial regurgitation).

Höger kammare och lungartÀr

NormalintervallLĂ€tt abnormalMĂ„ttligt abnormalUttalat abnormal
RV DIMENSIONS
Basal RV diameter (RVD 1), cm2.0–2.82.9–3.33.4–3.8>3.9
Mid RV diameter (RVD 2), cm2.7–3.33.4–3.73.8–4.1>4.2
Base-to-apex length (RVD 3), cm7.1–7.98.0–8.58.6–9.1>9.2
RVOT DIAMETER
Above aortic valve (RVOT 1), cm2.5–2.93.0–3.23.3–3.5>3.6
Above pulmonic valve (RVOT 2), cm1.7–2.32.4–2.72.8–3.1>3.2
PA DIAMETER
Below pulmonic valve (PA 1), cm1.5–2.12.2–2.52.6–2.9>3.0
RV SIZE AND FUNCTION (MEASURED IN A4C)
RV diastolic area, cm211–2829–3233–37>38
RV systolic area, cm27.5–1617–1920–22>23
RV fractional area change, %32–6025–3118–24<17

Förmak, vÀnster och höger

ReferensvÀrden för vÀnster förmak

KvinnorMĂ€n
NormalintervallLĂ€tt abnormalMĂ„ttligt abnormalUttalat abnormalNormalintervallLĂ€tt abnormalMĂ„ttligt abnormalUttalat abnormal
ATRIAL DIMENSIONS
LA diameter, cm2.7–3.83.9–4.24.3–4.6>4.73.0–4.04.1–4.64.7–5.2>5.2
LA diameter/BSA, cm/m21.5–2.32.4–2.62.7–2.9>3.01.5–2.32.4–2.62.7–2.9>3.0
RA minor-axis dimension, cm2.9–4.54.6–4.95.0–5.4>5.52.9–4.54.6–4.95.0–5.4>5.5
RA minor-axis dimension/BSA, cm/m21.7–2.52.6–2.82.9–3.1>3.21.7–2.52.6–2.82.9–3.1>3.2
ATRIAL AREA
LA area, cm2<2020–3030–40>40<2020–3030–40>40
ATRIAL VOLUMES
LA volume, mL22–5253–6263–72>7318–5859–6869–78>79
LA volume/BSA, mL/m222 ± 629–3334–39>4022 ± 629–3334–39>40

​BSA, Body surface area; LA, left atrial; RA, right atrial.

Mitralisinsufficiens (MI)

Primary parameters

Mild regurgiationModerate regurgitationSevere regurgitation
Vena contracta (cm)< 0,30,3-0,69> 0,69
EROA (cmÂČ)< 0,200,20-0,39> 0,39
Jet size< 4cmÂČ or < 20% of atrial size4-10 cmÂČ or 20-40% of atrial size> 10 cmÂČ or > 40% of atrial size
Jet orientationcentralvariableexcentric
Pulmonary vein flowS-dominantreduced S-wavesystolic flow reversal,

Qualitative parameters

Mild regurgiationModerate regurgitationSevere regurgitation
Mitral valve apparatusnormal or mildly abnormaloften abnormalabnormal, possibly flail
CW-profile mitral regurgitationweakvariabledense
Shape CW-profile mitral regurgitationparabolicvariableearly peak, triangular
Size left atriumnormalnormal or dilateddilated
Size left ventriclenormalnormal or dilateddilated

Additional PISA-parameters

Mild regurgiationModerate regurgitationSevere regurgitation
Regurgitation volume (ml/beat)< 3030-59> 59
Regurgitation volume = EROA x TVI
Regurgitation fraction (%)< 3030-49> 49

Miscellaneous parameters

Mild regurgiationModerate regurgitationSevere regurgitation
PW-Doppler mitral valveA dominantvariablehigh E values

Referenser

  1. Zoghbi, William A.; Enriquez-Sarano, Maurice; Foster, Elyse; Grayburn, Paul A.; Kraft, Carol D.; Levine, Robert A. et al. (2003): Recommendations for evaluation of the severity of native valvular regurgitation with two-dimensional and Doppler echocardiography. In Journal of the American Society of Echocardiography : official publication of the American Society of Echocardiography 16 (7), pp. 777–802. DOI: 10.1016/S0894-7317(03)00335-3.
  2. Zoghbi, William A.; Adams, David; Bonow, Robert O.; Enriquez-Sarano, Maurice; Foster, Elyse; Grayburn, Paul A. et al. (2017): Recommendations for Noninvasive Evaluation of Native Valvular Regurgitation. A Report from the American Society of Echocardiography Developed in Collaboration with the Society for Cardiovascular Magnetic Resonance. In Journal of the American Society of Echocardiography : official publication of the American Society of Echocardiography 30 (4), pp. 303–371. DOI: 10.1016/j.echo.2017.01.007. –>Pubmed-Link​

Mitralisstenos (MS)

Primary parameters

Mild stenosisModerate stenosisSevere stenosis
Valve area> 1,5 cmÂČ1,5 – 1,0 cmÂČ< 1,0 cmÂČ
Mean gradient< 5 mmHg5-10 mmHg> 10 mmHg

Additional parameters

Mild stenosisModerate stenosisSevere stenosis
Pulmonary artery pressure<3030-50>50

Referenser

  1. Baumgartner, Helmut; Hung, Judy; Bermejo, Javier; Chambers, John B.; Evangelista, Arturo; Griffin, Brian P. et al. (2009): Echocardiographic assessment of valve stenosis: EAE/ASE recommendations for clinical practice. In European journal of echocardiography : the journal of the Working Group on Echocardiography of the European Society of Cardiology 10 (1), pp. 1–25. DOI: 10.1093/ejechocard/jen303.
  2. Baumgartner, Helmut; Hung, Judy; Bermejo, Javier; Chambers, John B.; Evangelista, Arturo; Griffin, Brian P. et al. (2009): Echocardiographic assessment of valve stenosis: EAE/ASE recommendations for clinical practice. In Journal of the American Society of Echocardiography : official publication of the American Society of Echocardiography 22 (1), 1-23; quiz 101-2. DOI: 10.1016/j.echo.2008.11.029.
  3. Vahanian, Alec; Alfieri, Ottavio; Andreotti, Felicita; Antunes, Manuel J.; Barón-Esquivias, Gonzalo; Baumgartner, Helmut et al. (2012): Guidelines on the management of valvular heart disease (version 2012). In European heart journal 33 (19), pp. 2451–2496. DOI: 10.1093/eurheartj/ehs109.

Pulmonalisinsufficiens (PI)

Mild regurgiationModerate regurgitationSevere regurgitation
Pulmonary valve morphologynormalnormal/abnormalabnormal
Density CW-Dopplerweak, slow decelerationvariabledense, steep deceleration, early termination of diastolic flow
Jet width colour Dopplersmall,, < 10 mm length, narrow originvariablelarge, wide origin
Ratio pulmonic to aortic flownormalvariablesignificantly increased

Referenser

  1. Zoghbi, William A.; Enriquez-Sarano, Maurice; Foster, Elyse; Grayburn, Paul A.; Kraft, Carol D.; Levine, Robert A. et al. (2003): Recommendations for evaluation of the severity of native valvular regurgitation with two-dimensional and Doppler echocardiography. In Journal of the American Society of Echocardiography : official publication of the American Society of Echocardiography 16 (7), pp. 777–802. DOI: 10.1016/S0894-7317(03)00335-3.
  2. Zoghbi, William A.; Adams, David; Bonow, Robert O.; Enriquez-Sarano, Maurice; Foster, Elyse; Grayburn, Paul A. et al. (2017): Recommendations for Noninvasive Evaluation of Native Valvular Regurgitation. A Report from the American Society of Echocardiography Developed in Collaboration with the Society for Cardiovascular Magnetic Resonance. In Journal of the American Society of Echocardiography : official publication of the American Society of Echocardiography 30 (4), pp. 303–371. DOI: 10.1016/j.echo.2017.01.007.
  3. Lancellotti, Patrizio; Tribouilloy, Christophe; Hagendorff, Andreas; Moura, Luis; Popescu, Bogdan A.; Agricola, Eustachio et al. (2010): European Association of Echocardiography recommendations for the assessment of valvular regurgitation. Part 1: aortic and pulmonary regurgitation (native valve disease). In European journal of echocardiography : the journal of the Working Group on Echocardiography of the European Society of Cardiology 11 (3), pp. 223–244. DOI: 10.1093/ejechocard/jeq030.

Pulmonalisstenos (PS)

Mild stenosisModerate stenosisSevere stenosis
Peak velocity (m/s)< 33–4> 4
Peak gradient (mmHg)< 3636-64> 64

Referenser

  1. Baumgartner, Helmut; Hung, Judy; Bermejo, Javier; Chambers, John B.; Evangelista, Arturo; Griffin, Brian P. et al. (2009): Echocardiographic assessment of valve stenosis: EAE/ASE recommendations for clinical practice. In European journal of echocardiography : the journal of the Working Group on Echocardiography of the European Society of Cardiology 10 (1), pp. 1–25. DOI: 10.1093/ejechocard/jen303.
  2. Baumgartner, Helmut; Hung, Judy; Bermejo, Javier; Chambers, John B.; Evangelista, Arturo; Griffin, Brian P. et al. (2009): Echocardiographic assessment of valve stenosis: EAE/ASE recommendations for clinical practice. In Journal of the American Society of Echocardiography : official publication of the American Society of Echocardiography 22 (1), 1-23; quiz 101-2. DOI: 10.1016/j.echo.2008.11.029.

Trikuspidalisinsufficiens (TI)

Primary parameters

Mild regurgiationModerate regurgitationSevere regurgitation
PISA radius< 0,60,6-0,9> 0,9
Vena contracta (cm)not defined< 0,7> 0,7
Liver vein flowS-dominantReduced S-wavesystolic flow reversal, jet reaching liver veins

Additional quantitative parameters

Mild regurgiationModerate regurgitationSevere regurgitation
Jet size< 5cmÂČ5-10 cmÂČ> 10 cmÂČ
size vena cava inferior< 2,1 cm and compressiblein between> 2,1 cm, almost not compressible

Additional qualitative parameters

Mild regurgiationModerate regurgitationSevere regurgitation
Coaptation defectmildmoderatesevere
Size right ventriclenormalnormal or enlargedenlarged
Size right atriumnormalnormal or enlargedenlarged
CW-profile tricuspid regurgitationweakvariabledense
Shape CW-profile tricuspid regurgitationparabolicvariableearly peak, triangular

Referenser

1. Zoghbi, William A.; Enriquez-Sarano, Maurice; Foster, Elyse; Grayburn, Paul A.; Kraft, Carol D.; Levine, Robert A. et al. (2003): Recommendations for evaluation of the severity of native valvular regurgitation with two-dimensional and Doppler echocardiography. In Journal of the American Society of Echocardiography : official publication of the American Society of Echocardiography 16 (7), pp. 777–802. DOI: 10.1016/S0894-7317(03)00335-3.

2. Zoghbi, William A.; Adams, David; Bonow, Robert O.; Enriquez-Sarano, Maurice; Foster, Elyse; Grayburn, Paul A. et al. (2017): Recommendations for Noninvasive Evaluation of Native Valvular Regurgitation. A Report from the American Society of Echocardiography Developed in Collaboration with the Society for Cardiovascular Magnetic Resonance. In Journal of the American Society of Echocardiography : official publication of the American Society of Echocardiography 30 (4), pp. 303–371. DOI: 10.1016/j.echo.2017.01.007. –>Pubmed-Link

Trikuspidalisstenos (TS)

Mean pressure gradient≄ 5 mmHg
Valve area according to the continuity equation (cmÂČ)≀ 1 cmÂČ
ZTime-velocity-integral of the tricuspid inflow (cm)> 60 cm
Pressure half time (T Âœ,ms)≄ 190 ms
Right atriumSeverly enlarged
Vena cava inferiorenlarged

Referenser

1. Baumgartner, Helmut; Hung, Judy; Bermejo, Javier; Chambers, John B.; Evangelista, Arturo; Griffin, Brian P. et al. (2009): Echocardiographic assessment of valve stenosis: EAE/ASE recommendations for clinical practice. In European journal of echocardiography : the journal of the Working Group on Echocardiography of the European Society of Cardiology 10 (1), pp. 1–25. DOI: 10.1093/ejechocard/jen303.

2. Baumgartner, Helmut; Hung, Judy; Bermejo, Javier; Chambers, John B.; Evangelista, Arturo; Griffin, Brian P. et al. (2009): Echocardiographic assessment of valve stenosis: EAE/ASE recommendations for clinical practice. In Journal of the American Society of Echocardiography : official publication of the American Society of Echocardiography 22 (1), 1-23; quiz 101-2. DOI: 10.1016/j.echo.2008.11.029.

Forfattere

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Oppdatert 19. august 2026

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